Exodus: Theology
A theology of Exodus is also a theology of the Pent. Exod provides the record of the fulfillment of God's activities in history and creation recorded in Gen and provides the ongoing themes for Lev-Deut: God's intention to take Israel as his people and instill in them a recognition of himself as their God by means of the act of deliverance itself (Exod 6:7); God's definition of who his people are, “a kingdom of priests and a holy nation” by virtue of obeying his covenant (19:5-6); his intention to dwell among them (25:8; cf. Gen 2-3) and be their God (Exod 19:45-46), and its realization (40:34) as he guides them to their promised possession of Canaan (12:13; 40:36-38). Exod records nothing short of the birth of God's people and God's renewed encampment among humanity.
God's goal and purpose in Gen 1-2 was to create a people who freely chose him and were dedicated to him—as Paul would say in Acts 17:29, his “offspring.” The process by which God created his people and the character and nature of that people are carefully recorded in these chapters. They are loaded with theology, literary art, history, story, anthropology, sociology, and all else that is needed to reveal the Creator's plans and purposes. However, the Creator's goal of a people who would continue in relationship with him, one another, and the rest of creation was tragically cut short. A people of God was initiated, but they did not continue in that dynamic righteous relationship in which they were created. By refusing to obey the Creator's explicit words, intended to benefit them and to give them everlasting life, humankind chose to go another route to find their ultimate fulfillment. And their refusal to obey the Creator's word effectively removed his lordship/kingship from their lives individually and collectively.
The book of Exod picks up the major theme of God's preservation and creation of his people in Egypt. The descendants of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob were the people through whom he would renew his “creation community.” The re-creation of God's “creation community” as a dynamic, holy, righteous, loving, and knowledgeable community is the center piece of a theology of Exod. The references to Israel, people, Moses, and suffixal references to Israel exceed the references to Yahweh and God combined. The enthronement of Yahweh among his people, that is the restitution of his kingship/lordship, is the other side of the coin as recorded in Gen 1-3, where his kingship/lordship was rejected. God is the leading figure in Exod. In both Gen and Exod, epochs of God's creative activity, the ultimate means by which he accomplished his marvelous works was through his deeds, words, and presence. His word functioned powerfully in both books to create his people.
The rejection of the antediluvian (Gen 6-9) world and the postdiluvian world (11:1-9), along with their hubris at Babel, was followed by God's call of Abraham to be the father of a people/nation that would once again belong to the Creator/Redeemer exclusively. The covenants and promises to Abraham and his descendants provided the framework within which God worked his creative-redemptive plan (12:1-3; 15; 17; 26:3-4; 35:11-13). These covenants and promises assert new and great hopes for Abraham and his descendants, but also reassert and encompass God's plans for his original creation through them.
If humanity can be envisioned as the peak of a pyramid in Gen 1, it can be pictured as the center of a circle in Gen 2, with everything created for the joy and use of God's viceregent and all of this, in turn, subordinate to the reflection of the glory of the Creator by imaging him.
Gen 3 records the tragic event of rebellion at the origin of the human race, when humankind (µd:a;) rejected God's word of life and chose to go its own way, destroying the creation community's relationship with the Creator. All of the harmony, beauty, holiness, perfection, and care of Gen 1-2 is destroyed—by a decision made by humankind. Exod records a key epoch in God's renewal of his relationship with his people.
A. Structure
As Childs notes, there is no obvious way to divide Exodus into its parts. He suggests (IOTS, 170-71) that it is feasible to see the following structure:
I. The Exodus From Egypt (Exod 1:1- 15:21)
II. The Wilderness Journeys (15:22- 18:27)
III. The Covenant at Sinai and Its Ordinances (ch. 19-40).
J. Durham suggests:
I. Israel in Egypt (1:1- 13:16)
II. Israel in the Wilderness (13:17- 18:27)
III. Israel at Sinai (ch. 19-40).
At least Durham keeps the theme of the book as each suggested section—Israel, God's People. N. Sarna notes these possibilities for outlining the book:
1. Oppression and Liberation (1- 15:21)
2. From the Sea of Reeds to Sinai (15:22-18)
3. Events at Sinai (ch. 19-40), including the Covenant at Sinai (ch. 19-24) and the Tabernacle and Its Implementation (ch. 25-40).
W. VanGemeren, developing Child's suggestions, would prefer the following arrangement:
A. The Revelation of Yahweh's Royal Power (ch. 1-13)
B. Royal Provisions and Israel's Complacency (ch. 14-18)
C. Covenant: Israel's Consecration As a Covenant People (19:1- 24:18)
C’. Covenant: Plans for the Tabernacle (ch. 25-31)
B’. Idolatry, Forgiveness, Covenant Renewal, God's Presence (ch. 32-34)
A’. The Construction of the Tabernacle and the Revelation of Yahweh's Royal Glory (ch. 35-40)
However, the book of Exod is greater than the sum of any of its parts. But the parts are vital to experiencing the story, and the variety and richness of the individual stories must not be obscured. In my opinion, with the structural outlines suggested above in mind, the following topical outline will help the reader experience the major parts of the story and get a taste of the whole. Worship at the mountain of God (19:1- 40:38) includes arrival at Sinai and preparation to receive the words of the covenant (19), the giving of the Ten Commandments (20:1-20), the Book of the Covenant (20:21- 24:18), the instructions for worship and for the building of the tabernacle (25:1- 31:18; 35:1- 40:33), the breaking of the covenant and construction of the golden calf and covenant renewal (32-34); God's descent upon the tabernacle (40:34-38).
B. Themes
Here is a brief account of the high points of the process followed in Exod as God brings forth his people, along with a comparison and contrast of this with Gen as appropriate. Themes expressed in Exod are then developed more fully in Lev and Num.
1. The multiplication of the Israelites into a “potential people.” The multiplication of the Israelites in Egypt is a work of God; the text amply demonstrates this. God's divine blessing is upon this people, demonstrating thereby that they are his people. The multiplication of the enslaved Israelites in Egypt is not a biological or an environmental issue first of all; it is essentially a theological issue, in which the Lord has involved himself. It is a matter of God's remembering his promises and covenant with the descendants of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob (Exod 2:24). The multiplication that occurs is a result of his original blessing at creation that he had placed on his “creation community” now being placed on these people (see Exod 1:7, which employs key words given in Gen 1:28):
God blessed them and said to them, “Be fruitful and increase in number; fill the earth and subdue it. Rule over the fish of the sea and the birds of the air and over every living creature that moves on the ground.” (Gen 1:28)
But the Israelites were fruitful and multiplied greatly and became exceedingly numerous, so that the land was filled with them. (Exod 1:7)
God's command for humankind to be fruitful (hr:P;), multiply (hb;r:) and fill (alem;) the earth has been placed on the enslaved Israelites and has become a reality for the descendants of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob in Egypt, for they were fruitful (hr:P;), multiplied (hb;r:) and filled (alem;) the earth. Furthermore, we are told that they became “exceedingly powerful.” This last expression links the development of “the Israelites” (called that way for the first time here in v. 7; cf. v. 1, which refers to the twelve sons of Jacob only) into a nation—a promise fulfilled to Abraham given in Gen 18:18, along with the original blessings placed upon humanity. Israel has inherited these blessings as recorded in Gen 18:18, and they are the means by which God has developed Abraham into a great and powerful nation: “Abraham will surely become a great and powerful nation, and all nations on earth will be blessed through him” (18:18).
As a result, Israel now fills the land of Egypt. Exod 1:7 proleptically calls the multiplying people a nation, in recognition of Gen 18:18. The rich and manifold allusions of the transition verses of Exod 1:1-7 are enough to establish this first point. Although the original persons who enjoyed God's blessings, including Jacob and Joseph, have died, the blessing continues, for the God of the patriarchs continues his faithfulness, and the creator God remembers his plans for humankind. And death is not triumphant over the promises and covenants of God.
But this enslaved people is by no means in God's image. This is a reversal of the pattern in Gen, where God's people are made in his image and then told to multiply. Here the grace of God works. His chosen people are made to multiply before their birth and transformation through a knowledge of him that could conceivably make them the “re-created community,” reflecting him in character, action, and knowledge.
2. Yahweh brings his people to birth and leads them. The theme of Exod that God is making his people by redeeming them is found clearly stated in Exod 6:7 and the details of that plan are revealed throughout the book in various passages. “I will take you as my own people, and I will be your God. Then you will know that I am the LORD your God, who brought you out from under the yoke of the Egyptians.”
God's ownership of all people is evident in Gen 1-11, but the extent to which the nations have separated themselves from God (11:1-9) is indicated here. God has no unique people of his own who reflect him. They have all turned from the way of the Creator. No people or nation truly knows him. Through Israel, however, he is taking a people as his own people who will serve him and imitate him.
Ownership is the issue here. God owns his people; his people acknowledge him. Knowledge is the vital link to ownership—the people who know God truly. God is taking a people out of bondage to give them, through his acts and words, a knowledge of himself and a name, a people called by his name. The knowledge of God that the “creation community” had will be restored, and the true knowledge of God will be lodged among his people. But how that will happen is yet to come. And the process will continue until all of the essentials for God and his people, such as their close relationship, the place where they will dwell, and God's presence, are restored and realized.
The event of the Exodus itself demonstrates that Yahweh cares for and acts for his people. He birthed his people, as one ancient title for Exod reminds us, laer:c]yI ta'yxiy“ (lit.) the coming out of Israel a term used to describe the birth of an infant. The origin of God's people is explained adequately only as a miracle. From being no people he calls forth his people. The parallel with Gen is evident here also. A perishing people is turned into a thriving multitude that prospers under the most harsh political, environmental, religious, military, economic, and sociological conditions imaginable. The Lord's deliverance of his people is no mere natural occurrence, but a result of his intervention to effect his goals through his signs, wonders, marvels, and powerful demonstrations of both his love and his ability to render judgment on whoever oppose his creating his own people. Israel's response is one of knowledge, through recognition, demonstrated through worship (Exod 12:27; 14:31). And from the time that Israel began to leave Egypt, the Lord's presence, though Yahweh was not yet enthroned among them, was becoming a reality. God's presence in Gen 2-3 was not far off. Exod 25:8 reminds us that God's plan is to dwell with his people again. The way back to the “garden” was arduous and time consuming, but it has many vital turning points and components. (Exodus: Theology1)
3. The promise of a land flowing with milk and honey. The loss of the “garden” in Gen 3 was a tragedy, but God fully intended to restore to his people a place of habitation that equaled or exceeded the perfect conditions of the original dwelling place of humanity. Exod 6:8 mentions the land that God will give to his people, a land that became legendary for its produce and beauty—a land that could be considered a garden, a land flowing with milk and honey, and a land of theological significance. God's original “creation community” had the Garden of Eden; his renewed people will have the land of promise, which is a new Garden of Eden.
4. The formation and character of God's people. (a) The character of God's people. Exod 19:5-6 gives us a key definition for God's people, for if they were to be his people, they were to be a particular people of a particular God with a particular purpose. That purpose was to be “a kingdom of priests,” to bear the knowledge of God to all other nations, and “a holy nation,” to provide a glimpse of their own God to the nations by their total obedience and separation to him by reflecting him.
Standing at the center of God's plan to create his people was once again his word of instruction and life, his Torah, presented in the form of a covenant (Exod 19:5). The ten words of Yahweh directed the paths of his people in a way that would surely please him. His words were life; disobedience to his words was death, as beautifully and powerfully put in Deut:
Take to heart all the words I have solemnly declared to you this day, so that you may command your children to obey carefully all the words of this law. They are not just idle words for you—they are your life. By them you will live long in the land you are crossing the Jordan to possess. (Deut 32:46-47)
The original covenant creation community did not have this responsibility; rather, they were the bearers of the bad news of separation and failure. This “renewed community” is to bear the good news of reconciliation and restoration as a possible experience to all those who know Israel's God.
(b) A restored remnant of humanity. At Sinai and in the covenant effected there, where God revealed his will and character to his chosen people, one of the most amazing events in the OT outside of the creation of the original “creation community” took place. There at last a restored portion of God's fallen world was lifted up to a high religious, moral, ethical, civil, and cultic experience and to a knowledge of God that enabled them to glimpse once again what it meant for persons to reflect and to know God.
The Ten Commandments, or properly the “ten words,” along with the religious, moral, ethical, civil, and cultic instructions given by Yahweh to his chosen community, potentially lifted them to a place of reflecting him, of being once again the imago dei. The “words” of the Lord cluster in Exod 18 and 20, for this is where the moral and ethical renewal of God's reclaimed people was central. Through the words of Yahweh, the essential character of Yahweh's people was once again proclaimed. The creation of covenant was nothing less than the function of God's words, from creation, to Noah, to Abraham, and to Sinai. And as the Torah mirrored Yahweh himself, as his people were to mirror the Torah, the word of Yahweh was given to them for good and for abundant life. (Decalogue (Ten Commandments): Theology)
The Torah defined the religious-moral-ethical sphere where humankind was to function—just as God had, by his spoken command in the garden. In fact, it was the same sphere he had defined for his creation community. And as God's word in creation produced the physical world where humankind would exist, so here his word defined the sphere where the religious, the ethical, the moral center of life was to be lived. To live meant to do Yahweh's words, both in creation theology and in redemption theology. His words were the source of life to them. Humankind could learn anew that creatures who are God's image exist “not by bread alone, but by every word that comes from the mouth of God” (Deut 8:3; cf. Gen 2:16-17; 3:3). It is clear that God had not dropped his moral, religious, and ethical demands since the original “creation community.” The renewal community was responsible to do Yahweh's words in order to live and not die. There was a genuine point of contact between morality and ethics expected then and the morality and ethics expected now. The latter restored and renewed the former. The former served as the blueprint for the latter. The “way of the LORD” (hw™:hy“ Ër< ) was to be the way Israel would remain as God's people, and therein lay a true knowledge of him. The words of Yahweh were central to the creation of his people. His words in Gen not only created but guided his people. The words of God were the dynamic yet relational power/aspect of God that accomplished all of his will and purpose, both in creation and in Exod. (Ethics; Law of God Theology)
5. God's presence restored. Absolutely vital to Israel's being God's people was God's presence among them. It was the sine qua non: no presence of God, no people of God. The Lord's presence, though restored in the pillar (—> ) of fire by night and the cloud by day and though made known at Sinai, was not yet that presence of God dwelling with his people enjoyed by the “creation community” (Gen 2-3), but provision was to be made for this: That presence was indeed necessary, as Moses so strongly asserted (Exod 33:15-16): “If your Presence does not go with us, do not send us up from here. How will anyone know that you are pleased with me and with your people unless you go with us? What else will distinguish me and your people from all the other people on the face of the earth?”
Therefore, God himself gave the blueprints for a tabernacle to be built and a Tent of Meeting to be established, where he might meet and even dwell among his people (Exod 25:8; 29:45-46; 33:7-11). His presence would reinforce Israel's recognition of Yahweh as the God who rescued them from Egypt (29:45-46; cf. Lev 26:11). Upon the completion of this tabernacle, he obligingly filled it with his awesome presence (Exod 40:34-35). He was once again back among his unique people, both when they traveled and when they camped (40:36-38)—the only people on earth who had his Torah to guide them and his presence to define them. They had come potentially to a place where they could grow in knowledge of him again, for he had declared himself to them through event, Torah, and cult—indeed, by his presence once more. And in order to promote relationship and to give his people access to his holy presence, the priesthood with divine approval and establishment was to serve as the human mediator between Yahweh and his people and to mirror how the entire nation was to function before all of the nation (19:5-6; 29). From the individual households of 1:1, when Yahweh worked silently behind the scenes, Israel had become the “whole household of Israel” among whom Yahweh was enthroned (Exod 40:34-35, 38).
6. Other themes. Much more could have been said above about specific theological themes of the book of Exod. Others can only be noted briefly below. All of these are components of the theme of the whole (Exod 6:6-7), the Lord's redemption/creation of his people.
(a) God showed himself to be the God of the covenant with the fathers Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. He remembered his covenant with the fathers and suffered with his people (Exod 2:23-25). Although he is the God of all the nations, he had taken Israel to be his crown jewel, his special people (hL;gUs] [H6035], 19:5-6), through his covenant. But even before his covenantal relation with Israel at Sinai, he declared Israel to be his firstborn son (4:22-23), establishing a familial relationship with his people.
He was the God of deeds, who acted on behalf of his people; he was a man of war for them (plagues, Exodus; 15:3 esp.), but also a God of verbal communication, making his will known in words, µyrIb;D“, as well as deeds, µyrIb;D“! Through his words throughout the book his deeds were made understandable.
In addition to revealing his character in word and deed, he communicated himself by revealing his name, hw±:hy“ (3:14-15). This name imparted a further aspect of himself as the God who was there. His fuller name, hy–
The Lord is a God who promised to dwell with his people as he did in the beginning (Exod 25:8), for he desired relationship at an interpersonal level. And he would be with his people also as a guide to help them to know when to go and where to go as he led them to his promised inheritance (3:7-10; 23:23-33). He was sovereign over all the forces of nature, history (10:1-23; 14:21, 27), and all so-called deities (18:11) in Egypt or elsewhere.
(b) Moses, God's chosen leader became not only the great lawgiver of Yahweh, but the human agent of deliverance (hv,mo, one who draws out, delivers) and the prophet par excellence (Deut 4:1-17; 18:15-18; 34:10-12). Moses’ own deliverance from the water of the Nile in a basket (hb;Te, little ark) foreshadowed the deliverance of Israel. His life was directed by God as a b/f, special, child (Exod 2:2). As the one who instituted the Sinai Covenant, he was unequaled in the OT. Moses became the model intercessor for the people before God (Exod 32:11-34) and the OT example of the good shepherd, willing to give his life for the lost sheep (32:30-32). And the Lord showed his willingness to listen to his servant.
(c) The oppression and resultant multiplication of the Israelites in Egypt is a historical fact, but a historical fact driven by Yahweh's word through his covenant with their fathers (Gen 1:26-28; 9:1-2; 15:12-16; 18:17).
(d) The plagues of the book of Exod demonstrate Yahweh's ability to deliver his people, defeat all their enemies, men or gods, and control the kings of the earth for his own glory and his people's benefit. He is sovereign over the natural world to accomplish his own ends.
(e) The theological meaning of the Exodus event is primary. God makes clear what the goal of his deliverance of his people is: that they may serve him as true Master, and not Pharaoh or the elements of the world (Exod 3:12; 4:23; 5:1; 7:16, etc.). Certainly economic, material, political, social, and psychological benefits may flow from this deliverance into true spiritual freedom. In this world, however, these other benefits may or may not come, but spiritual and religious freedom is granted.
The Exodus event became the salvation event par excellence in the OT. Future ideas of God's salvation and/or restoration activities pulled on this as the model of future liberation (e.g., Isa 43:18-21). In the NT Peter drives home the point that the purpose of the new Exodus from the bondage of sin has primarily a religious goal: to glorify God (1 Peter 2:9-10).
(f) The ordinances of the feasts and festivals of Israel directed Israel to celebrate with joy the works and words of her Creator/Redeemer God who had rescued her, brought her into existence as a people, and would continue to preserve her as she walked in his Torah. These celebrations were not tied to nature per se but rather recognized the hand of God as the ultimate provider for his people, both in history and in the economics of agriculture.
(i) Passover (js'P&,) or Unleavened Bread (t/XM'h' gj') (Exod 10:2; 12:3-20; 23:15) was one of three annual festivals. It specifically remembered Israel's historical deliverance. It was celebrated on the fourteenth day of Aviv (later Nisan), the first month, until the twenty-first of the month. The first day and the last day were holy convocations (ar:q]mi) for Israel.
(ii) The Feast of Weeks (t[obuv; gj'), also called the Feast of Harvest or The Day of Firstfruits (Exod 23:16; 34:22), featured a holy convocation (ar:q]mi) and sacrifices. Later it became known as Pentecost, since it started on the fiftieth day from the Sabbath beginning Passover (cf. Num 28:26; Lev 23:16). It was celebrated at the end of wheat harvest in Sivan (May-June).
(iii) The Feast of Tabernacles (t/Ksu) was celebrated at the end of the year in Tishri (Sept-Oct). It is also called the Feast of Ingathering or Booths. Several of the mainstays of Israel's agricultural livelihood were then brought in, such as fruit, grapes, and olives (Exod 23:16).
Exodus Exod 23:10-16 constitutes a short cultic calendar in which the Sabbath year and the importance of the Sabbath are presented. The Sabbath had been formalized in Exod 20:11, and God's rest after creation was given as its rationale. In 23:12 a complementary humanitarian basis is given for the Sabbath observance (cf. Deut 5:12-15): Israel had experienced no rest from their labors in Egypt near the end of their oppression. They may have been subjected to a ten-day work week in Egypt. Yahweh would provide rest for his people, even if Pharaoh would not (Exod 5:6-9).
(g) Yahweh tested (hs;n:, H5814) Israel in the wilderness to see if she would follow his laws and decrees (Exod 15:25b-26; 16:4). The desert (—> ) period became a time when the Lord showed his ability to provide for his people under the most adverse conditions. His miraculous feeding of them with manna was used by Jesus to describe who he was (16:13-36; John 6). Israel learned that humankind does not live on bread alone and that the Lord is the source of their sustenance, providing their daily needs of food.
(h) The Ten Words (Exod 20:1-17) of Yahweh lifted Israel to a new place among the nations, so that they could be the Lord's unique possession (hL;gUs]) and that God himself could dwell among them (25:8; 33:15-16). These amazing words of moral, ethical, and spiritual guidance to govern relationships between God and humanity were a gift to all humankind through Israel's mediation as the Lord's holy nation, a kingdom of priests who would serve as mediators between Yahweh and the nations (Gen 12:1-3). This law is the centerpiece, written upon the hearts and minds of those in the new covenant instituted by Christ (Jer 31:31-34; Heb 8:8-13).
(i) In order for Israel to be the holy priestly kingdom, God instituted both the priesthood headed by the sons of Aaron (Exod 28- 29:1-37) and the sacrificial system (20:24-26; 29:38-46) of his people, in order to atone for their sins and to establish relationship with their God.
(j) The Book of the Covenant (Exod 20:21- 24:8) gives regulations and selected samples and principles that were to guide the economic and civil life of God's people. However, this aspect of Israel's life cannot be separated from her religious and theological ordinances. They are all part of a whole. Their future agricultural life in the land of Canaan is included in this preview (23:1-33).
(k) The rebellion of Israel at Sinai (Exod 32-34) provided the author with the opportunity to describe both the high point and the low point in the book. Israel's rebellion and construction of a golden calf fixed the Lord's understanding of this people, for they were a rebellious, stiff-necked people and justly deserved destruction—they had broken the covenant even before the covenantal documents had been delivered to them (32:9). However, because of Moses’ faithful intercession for the people, the Lord, on the basis of his gracious character (34:5-7), forgave the people and renewed the covenant (34:10-25, 27-28). Had he not been a gracious, loving God, the story of this group of Israelites would have ended at that point.
(l) The tabernacle (ˆK;v]mi; Exod 25-31) was to be a place for God's presence to dwell (tent) among his people (25:8-9), the sine qua non in order for Israel to be his people (33:15-16). Its completion recalls the completion of the universe in Genesis (cf. Gen 2:1-3; Exod 39:32, 42-43). God's presence is the essence of this feature of Exodus. The tabernacle/temple will ultimately be done away with in the final community of God and his people (Rev 21:2-4, 22), for it is God's presence that, in the final analysis, make his people holy (cf. Exod 3:5). His presence defines and creates holiness. The Solomonic temple was later built following the basic pattern of the tabernacle.
(m) God's presence in Exod is also emphasized in the pillars of cloud and of fire. He led his people out of Egypt (Exod 13:21-22) and through the wilderness to Sinai (16:10). After the tabernacle was finished the cloud covered it and he “tented” in the Holy of Holies. The Lord led Israel in all her journeyings by the pillar of cloud and showed his presence mightily as a fire in the pillar (40:34-38). These two facts emphasize his faithful guidance of his people after Sinai.
See Feasts & festivals
Bibliography HBD 288-91; IDB 2:188-97; NBD 2, 374-76; THAT 1:755-62; U. Cassuto, A Commentary on the Book of Exodus, 1967; B. S. Childs, The Book of Exodus, OTL, 1974; idem, Introduction to the Old Testament As Scripture, 1979, 161-79; G. Coats, “Theology of the Hebrew Bible,” in The Hebrew Bible and Its Modern Interpreters, 1985, 239-56; D. Daube, The Exodus Pattern in the Bible, All Souls Studies II, 1963; W. J. Dumbrell, Covenant and Creation, 1984; J. I. Durham, Exodus, WBC, 1987; M. Har-El, The Sinai Journeys, 1983; W. Kaiser, Toward An Old Testament Theology, 1978, 100-121; W. Johnstone, Exodus, 1990; E. Martens, God's Design, 1981; E. H. Merrill, “A Theology of the Pentateuch,” in A Biblical Theology of the Old Testament, eds. Zuck, Merrill, Bock, 1991, 7-87; N. M. Sarna, Exodus, The JPS Torah Commentary, xii-xiii; idem, Exploring Exodus, 1986, 6-7; S. D. Steinberg, The Mishkan and the Holy Garments, trans. M. Miller, 1922; J. Strong, The Tabernacle of Israel, 1987; W. A. VanGemeren, The Progress of Redemption, 1988, 132-79.
Eugene Carpenter
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