Yatsar ("Form, Fashion, Shape")

Yatsar

"Form, Fashion, Shape"

        There have been numerous attempts to conform the account of creation to the non-purposive, time-plus-chance notion prevalent in scientific circles. Yatsar is significant because its presence in Genesis argues against interpreting the biblical account as a non-telic development. Yatsar is Genesis 2:7 indicates that the activity of God’s fashioning the man was in accordance with sovereign design; the idea of forming or shaping something according to plan is at the heart of the meaning of the word.

Etymology

Definitions
        The lexicographers define the word yatsar as "to form, fashion" (BDB), or "to shape" (KBL). Each lexicon divides the discussion between human activity and divine activity, and within each section traces a development from the very literal meaning to the figurative uses, such as planning or framing ideas. The definitions reflect the idea of making something by design; thus, it seems to reflect the activity of an artist.

Hebrew Cognates
        Other words related to this verb are not very common, but what exists is very helpful. There is a noun yetser which means "a form, framing, purpose." It is the word for the "pottery" formed by the "potter" (which is the active participle yotser) in Isaiah 29:16; the "form" of the graven image in Habakkuk 2:18; and the "form" of man made from the dust of the ground in Psalm 103:14. It is also used in Genesis 6:5 for the "imagination" of the mind that is only evil continually. This usage of the word stresses the plans, purposes, or inclinations framed in the mind. It is this term that in Jewish theology conveys what is called the evil inclination of man.
        There is another noun, y^etsurim, that occurs one time and refers to the "forms," i.e., the members of the body.
        Jastrow lists three other words from Rabbinic literature. There is y^etsir, which means "creation" or "creature"; there is also y^etsirah, which is either (1) "formation, creation," and "nature," or (2) the "potter’s workshop." A third word, y^etsirin, refers to "molds" used for pressed olives or raisins.
        One may observe from this that the related words all have something to do with what is made according to a pattern, a design or a plan.

Cognate Languages
        The word yatsar had cognates in the Semitic languages with the basic idea of "fashion" or "create." There is an Akkadian word etseru¹ that meant "design" or "shape," just as the Hebrew word yetser later did.
        Ugaritic also used the word with the same meaning. The word y-ts-r² also appears in Phoenician as the term for a "potter." Later Hebrew (post-biblical or Mishnaic Hebrew) also uses yotser for the "potter" as well as for the "creator." Thus, one can see that the historical study of the word from its earliest appearance through the biblical period shows a continuity of meaning, and that this continuity is maintained in later Hebrew.

Usage

        A survey of how this word was used in the Old Testament will reveal that the basic, concrete uses occur when it describes the activities of people, and that the metaphorical uses abound when it portrays the activity of God. This, of course, is because God’s activities are communicated to people in human terms and meanings. Consequently, it is the category describing human activity which establishes controls on how the word is to be understood in the theological contexts.

Human Activity of Planning and Producing
        Products. The most common use of this general category refers to the process of producing a finished product out of raw materials by the application of a skill.
        The example most frequently used (because it was applied to God metaphorically) is that of the potter: "Shall the potter (yotser) be considered as equal with the clay, that what is made (ma‘aseh) should say to its maker, ‘He did not make me’; or that what is formed (yetser) say to him who formed (yatsar), ‘He has no understanding’?" (Isa. 29:16; see also Isa. 45:9; 64:7). In making the theological point, the passage refers to the physical activity of a human potter. A potter begins with malleable raw material and rearranges it into a spatially ordered system, a product due solely to the activity and plan of the potter. Unquestionably, the potter is greater than the product of his activity. In fact, there is an undeniable mark of the potter on his creation, whether that product is designed for some functional purpose or for ornament (or a combination of the two). Yatsar then seems to describe this whole process from the formulation of the plan to the skillful shaping of the vessel to fit that purpose.
        The same can be said for its use for a sculptor fashioning an image: "Those who fashion (yots^ere) a graven image are all futile" (Isa. 44:9; see also Hab. 2:18/20). Although the futility of shaping idols is pointed out in this verse, the basic meaning of yatsar is unchanged. This basic meaning also applies to the engraver, fashioning his iron into a cutting tool over the coals (Isa. 44:12), or to the weaponeer who fashions weapons for war (Isa. 54:17a). In all the examples it is clear that some skilled artist is taking raw material and fashioning it into some purposeful product.
        Plans. Related to this physical activity is the use of the word group to describe mental activity. Once in the Bible yatsar refers to the formulation of a man’s plans: "Can a throne of destruction be allied with you, one which devises (yatsar) mischief by decree" (Ps. 95:20). No raw material is made explicit by the context, but plans are the product of mental activity applied to concrete situations. The quality of the product depends on the mental skill of the thinker, just as the quality of the pottery depends on the skill of the potter. More important, though, is the effect of the attitude of the person on what he devises, for if it is wicked and rebellious his thoughts will be evil (Gen. 6:8).

Divine Activity of Planning and Producing
(Metaphorical Usages)
        The use of the term in describing divine activity parallels the above categories in that there is the actual producing of a product and the formulation of plans.
        Production of animate objects. When the word describes the divine production of animate things there is a variety of materials used in the process. Sometimes God used inanimate raw material to produce life. Genesis records that "out of the ground Yahweh God formed (yatsar) every beast of the field" (2:19; see also 2:7, 8). The skill of the one forming is evidenced by the complexity of the finished product--life.
        Sometimes God used animate raw material such as in Amos 7:1 where it says that "he was forming a locust swarm when the spring crop began to sprout" (also: Isa. 27:11; 43:1, 21; 44:21; 45:9, 11). It seems that God was bringing the locusts to a point where they could be utilized as his instrument of judgment. He was causing them to multiply and gather in order that they might be the destructive force that they were, but he was doing it by controlling the laws of nature.
        In a similar way he made Israel into a great nation: "Thus says Yahweh, your creator, O Jacob, even he who formed you, O Israel" (Isa. 43:1). Here one would conclude that the term yatsar includes the historical processes and the natural laws of reproduction; in it all the nation was being carefully formed into the kind of nation that God wanted in the land. The natural processes of reproduction appear also in passages where God is said to have formed individuals in the womb (Jer. 1:5) or various parts of the individual body, such as the eye (Ps. 94:9), the heart (Ps. 33:15), or the spirit (Zech. 12:1). The emphasis in these verses must be on the skillful and purposeful shaping of the divine creator by means of natural processes.
        Production of inanimate objects. Here there seems to be little or no emphasis on the material used. For example, the prophet declares the word of Yahweh, saying, "I am Yahweh and there is none other, I form the light and create darkness, causing peace and creating calamity . . ." (Isa. 45:7, 18; see also Amos 4:13; Jer. 33:21; Pss. 74:17 and 95:5). Light, which is inanimate, is a good example of something formed by God to carry out a purpose. The skill of the one forming light is evident from our knowledge of the mystery of light.
        Formulation of plans. Yatsar within the sphere of divine activity also applies to the formulation of plans. God said, "Long ago I did it; from ancient times I planned it. Now I have brought it to pass, that you should turn fortified cities into ruinous heaps" (2 Kings 19:25; see also Isa. 22:11; 37:26; 46:11; Jer. 18:11; and Ps. 139:16). The word "planned" may not be the best choice here, for there is the tendency to think of fickle human planning. God’s plans are brought into reality because they do not depend on situations over which he may not have control. The psalmist expressed his amazement over God’s sovereignty when he realized that God not only formed him in the womb but programmed the events of his life: "When I was woven together in the depths of the earth [=womb], your eyes saw my unformed substance. All the days which you ordained (yatsar) for me were written in your book before one of them came to be" (NIV).
        It may be concluded that whenever the word yatsar is used, whether of man or of God, the emphasis is on the purposeful design in the mind of the one forming a plan, producing a useful product, or creating a work of art--like a piece of pottery.

Synonyms

        There are a number of other words in the language that could have been used in passages like these, but none with the exact same idea or range of meanings. The word bara’, "to create," parallels our word. It emphasizes the divine activity only (our word yatsar can be used of God and people); it also emphasizes that the finished product is perfect, new and fresh. But it does not include the idea of planning.
        Another word is khashab, which does include the ideas of thinking and devising like yatsar does. It appropriately is used in parallelism with yatsar, as in Jeremiah 18:11, which says, "behold, I am fashioning (yatsar) calamity against you and devising (khashab) a plan against you." But khashab says nothing of actually forming, only of thinking or accounting (by either man or God).
        Then there is the general word ‘asah, "to make," but it is too broad to provide any helpful similarities.

Translations

        Some of the better "commentaries" on the Hebrew word are the glosses used by the translations, for they summarize the equivalence in the translation’s ideas. For example, the Old Greek uses plasso most frequently to translate yatsar. This Greek word also translated bara’, khul, tsur, kun, natsar, ‘atsab, and ‘asah; but 37 times out of 50 it represented yatsar. It is a fitting word to use for the translation. Its noun plasma is a "fitted thing" or a "molded image, figure." The Greek verb means "to form," or "to mold," and is properly used of an artist who works in soft substances such as clay, wax, or earth. It too can have the metaphorical meaning of "imagine," i.e., to form something in the mind. The plassein Of Yahweh does not denote simply the natural side of creating, but it may also include the historical processes which are interpreted as decisive saving acts.
        Other words were also used in the Greek, but they are not as helpful. They include poieo, "to make," ktizo, "to create," keramus, "a potter," and kataskeuazo, to create, erect, furnish." Sometimes Hebrew yatsar was incorrectly translated, such as by peripoieo, "to preserve," in Isaiah 43:21, and by katadeiknumi, "to show," in Isaiah 45:18.
        But it is the word plasso that shows up most often in the New Testament. Paul underscores the discussion of the sovereignty of God by using the Old Testament example of the "potter:" :On the contrary, who are you? O man, who answers back to God? The thing molded will not say to the molder, why did you make me like this, will it?" This is a quotation from the LXX of Isaiah 29:16.
        The English word "to form" means "to shape, mold." It can also mean "to conceive" ( "to develop in the mind, to form abn opinion"). The more specific word, "shape," means to give something a particular form or shape." For example, it can mean "to cause to conform to a particular patter, to plan, to supervise.
        The Indo-European root, for example of "landscape," is gesceap, "form, creation." The Germanic variant skopo- signified "thing cut out." So the meanings of "form" or "shape" adequately translate this verb, emphasizing more of the pattern.

Significance

        It is proper to say on the basis of this evidence that yatsar combines the purposeful design of the artist with the skill involved in producing something very useful. When it describes the activity of God, all the emphases of the term become more complex and unusual. The materials used, the activities described, and the products produced by the divine artist show not only his sovereignty over the thing made, but also his superiority over human artists.
        By using this term to portray the work of God among humans, the biblical writers were stressing his masterful plan and his sovereign performance. Its use in Genesis 2:7 vividly pictures his specific, telic work in forming humans, in spite of the fact that the Bible says little about how he did this. Nevertheless, this initial comparison between God and the potter serves the later biblical writers as they taught that God carefully planned their frames, their lives, and their nation. To them, people did not just happen. Rather, the human being was the marvelous and wonderful creation of the divine craftsman who superintended whatever processes were necessary to prepare him as a useful servant.

Allen P. Ross

Bara’ (“Create”)

Bara’

“Create”

       The word bara’ is at the heart of any study of the account of creation in Genesis. But as is often the case in critical discussion, more is made of the word than usage warrants. The assumption is often made that the word means “creation out of nothing” (creatio ex nihilo). It is one thing to say that the Bible teaches that God created everything out of nothing, and that this word could be used in such statements; but it is another thing entirely to say the word means that. It is therefore important to survey the etymology and usage of the word to determine its range of meanings.

          The verb occurs in the basic verbal stem (qal) and its passive stem (niphal). There are a few cases where the word seems to occur in a different stem (piel) with the meaning “to cut down” (e.g., a forest [Josh. 17:15]), or “cut out” (Ezek. 21:24). There is insufficient data to determine how this idea could be related to the verb “to create.” It is possible that “cutting” was a way of “creating.” But it is more likely that we are dealing with separate words entirely, even though the older dictionaries list these meanings under the one root. Holladay lists these as separate roots.

          There is another verb bara’ which the dictionaries list as a separate root, “to be fat.” It occurs in the causative stem (hiphil) with the meaning “to fatten” (1 Sam. 2:29). This would mean then that there were three separate words spelled bara’ (as Holladay lists in his dictionary).

Etymology

Dictionary Definitions

          The standard dictionaries define the Hebrew word to mean “shape, create, fashion.” The meaning of the English word “create” essentially means “bring into existence, give rise to, originate, design, make” (OED). The English word “create” can be used in statements about creation out of nothing as well as in statements about creation from existing materials. What we must determine is whether or not the Hebrew bara’ has such a range.

Cognate Languages

          The evidence from the Semitic languages provides some helpful information for the general understanding of bara’ and its related synonyms.

          Akkadian, according to BDB, has the word baru (a III weak verb like Hebrew bara’) with the meaning “to make, create.” However, the more up-to-date Chicago Assyrian Dictionary does not give this as a meaning; rather, it defines baru A as ‘to look upon, to watch over,” and baru B as “to be hungry.”

          BDB also suggests that Hebrew bara’ be compared with Assyrian banu (also a III weak verb) which in the G (= qal) stem means: 1) to build, construct, form,” 2) “to engender, produce,” 3) “to create” (the subject being the deity), and 4) “to devise a plan.” The correspondence of banu with bara’ would involve an interchange between the n and the r. Since both consonants are liquids they could interchange (note Hebrew “son” is ben but Aramaic is bar). The connection may be strengthened in view of the fact that banu is the verb used in the Mesopotamian creation story Enuma Elish: “[Ea] created (ibna ) mankind out of [Kingu’s] blood” (VI. 33).

          If banu is a cognate word then more information would be available for the background of Hebrew bara’. But Hebrew also has a verb banah (III He’ verb), which means “to build.” Akkadian banu is most likely cognate to this word, and not bara’. In fact, in Genesis banah is used in addition to bara’: “and he [Yahweh] fashioned/built (wayyiben) the rib into the woman” (Gen. 2:22).

          As for Ugaritic, there is no cognate for our verb as far as we know. In Ugaritic Textbook Gordon lists bnw/y, “to build,” as cognate to banah.

          As a Phoenician cognate BDB lists a word meaning “incisor, a trade involving cutting.” This would be cognate to the second root bara’ and therefore not relevant to this word study (unless one argued that “cut” was a category of meaning under the verb, and then this would harmonize with that category).

          In Arabic we have the cognate word bara’i (bary), which means “to form, fashion,” and BDB includes the meanings “to fashion by cutting, shaping out, to pare a reed for writing, a stick for an arrow.” These may be related to the second root. BDB also list bara’a as a loan word, “to create.” Old South Arabic has a root br’ that means “to build.” And Soqotri has a meaning “bring forth, give birth to.”

          Aramaic and Syriac are closer to Hebrew with the verb br’ meaning “to create.” The word is not used in the Aramaic portions of the Old Testament. In later Aramaic and Hebrew the Rabbinical usage carries the biblical meanings forward. Jastrow’s dictionary joins together under bara’ (Heb.) and b^era’ (Aram.) The meanings “create, cut, shape, perforate,” and “strengthen, make well, make grow.” This simply represents the way that the literature used the word and expanded its range, and does not attempt to explain the connections of meanings and the roots.

Hebrew Derivative

          There is only one noun to consider with this study, the feminine noun b^eri’ah, “a creation, thing created.” The only use of this word is in Numbers 16:30 where it describes something new and unparalleled: “If the LORD brings about something totally new” -- referring to the earth’s swallowing the rebels.

Conclusion 

          From this survey it seems safe to say that the Hebrew verb bara’, “to create,” is not well-attested in the cognate languages--but it does occur enough to show it is a good Semitic word. Only by allowing for a shift in the letters, or by joining apparent homonyms together as one root, can any substantial cognate material be collected to make a contribution. For example, Bernhardt suggests that the Hebrew root bara’ had an original meaning of “to separate, divide” (TDOT, II:245). This would account for definitions of “cut” as well as “create.” While this is certainly possible, there is no real evidence for it. Even if it could be established, it would be academic, for the basic meanings of the verb bara’ are established by usage--and there are enough uses of the verb to provide that information. This study will proceed on the understanding that there are three Hebrew roots with these same letters, and only the passages meaning “create” or “shape” will be surveyed.

Usage

The verb is used in the basic (qal) stem some 38 times, and in the passive (niphal) stem ten times. All of the uses are in contexts where the English translation “create” fits; and in all the contexts it is God who creates. But the separate categories of meaning will further define what this “creation” is like. Here it will be helpful to survey what was created and then determine how it was done. The categories of meaning with selected samples are:

1.       The Formation of the Universe and All Its Contents

          The most common use of bara’ applies to God’s acts of the creation of the universe (and all universes) and what is in it. The texts all reveal that God’s creative works are incomparable, and whatever was created is perfect. We may sub-divide this category for specific examples

          The Universe. There is no word more appropriate to the dramatic statements about God’s formation of the universe(s) than this word bara’. The term describes exclusively the work of God in producing what to man is unthinkable and impossible. The first verse of the Bible asserts God’s creation rather matter-of-factly: “In the beginning God created (bara’) the heavens and the earth.” The contents of Genesis 1 and corroborative statements such as that found in Psalm 33:9 explain that the means of this creation was the divine decree--God spoke, and it happened. God’s powerful word created everything.

          Other passages fit this point as well. Genesis 2:3, stressing that God ceased from his work, summarizes the creation of the heaven and the earth and all the contents with bara’. Isaiah also uses bara’ in this sense, affirming that it is the LORD who created the heavens (Isa. 42:5), the stars (Isa. 40:26), and the ends of the earth (Isa. 40:28). The psalmist also affirms that God created the north and the south (Ps. 89:12 [13]), which also may be a merism for the whole world.

          Cosmic Forces. The verb bara’ is also used to tell of God’s producing the forces of nature. Amos describes the LORD as the one who formed (< yatsar) the mountains and created (bara’) the wind (Am. 4:13). Darkness is also a result of God’s creative power; the LORD says through Isaiah, “I form (yatsar) the light and create (bara’) the darkness. I make (‘asah) peace and create (bara’ ) evil” (Isa. 45:7). “Darkness” in this passage is parallel with “evil” by virtue of the repetition of the verb. The words may stress the evil forces of darkness, or painful calamity, of distressing situations, in contrast to light and peace. Modern scholarship has detected a reference here to early forms of Persian dualism.

          Living Creatures. Bara’ is used in Genesis to express the creation of humans as well as other beings. Three times the verb is used in Genesis 1:27; then in the same sense it is repeated in Genesis 5:1, 2; 6:7; Deut. 4:32; and in Isaiah 45:12. The Scripture thereby stresses that humans are exclusively the product of God’s creative act. Since the account in Genesis 2:7 specifies that mankind was formed (yatsar) from the dust of the ground, it may be concluded that the verb bara’ in reference to humans at least describes a formation using pre-existing material. It was a shaping and transforming of dust into a body that the word bara’ summarizes. The use of this verb yatsar should probably be understood figuratively because creation was by divine decree.

          One verse that needs additional attention is Psalm 89:47 [48], which says, “Remember how short my time is; why have you made (bara’ta) all mankind in vain?” The word is here used for the making of the whole human race. Because God created the man and the woman in the beginning, he is therefore perceived to be the one who created the human race too. In other passages synonyms of bara’ are used to ascribe divine causality to the process of human reproduction (cf. Ps. 139:13 which focuses on the development in the womb as God’s creative work).

          Bara’ is also used in Genesis 1:21 for the making of the great sea creatures, every living creature that the waters brought forth, and every winged fowl. Why our word is used in this verse is not immediately clear. It may be that since the great sea creatures were feared and venerated in the pagan religions the writer wished to stress the fact that they were only creatures, the product of God’s sovereign creative decree.

2.       The Establishment of the Nation of Israel            

          A second category for the uses of bara’ concerns the creation of Israel, the people of God. Isaiah records the declaration of the LORD that affirms this: “I am the LORD, your Holy One, the creator (bore’) of Israel, your king” (Isa,. 43:15). The same chapter also uses “Jacob” (meaning the nation) as the object of God’s creation: “But now, thus says the LORD who created you (bora’aka), O Jacob, who formed you, O Israel” (Isa. 43:11). The verb, then, applies to God’s work of forming a nation out of the descendants of Abraham.

          The same idea appears to be the point of Malachi 2:10--but the exegesis of the passage is difficult. Malachi said, “Have we not all one father? Has not one God created us (b^era’anu)?” He bases his message against divorce on the national unity that they share as the people of God.

          Not only does the verb bara’ describe the formation of the nation, but also the inclusion of individual believers within it. Referring to the re-gathering of his “sons” (his people), he said: “everyone that is called by my name, for I have created him

(b^era’tiw) for my glory” (Isa. 43:7). Perhaps Qoheleth’s (Ecclesiastes) use of the word stresses something of this idea as well: “Remember now your creator (bor^e’eka) in the days of your youth” (Eccl. 12:1).

3.       Transformation for the Renewal of Things

          The third major category includes those passages that describe God’s work of making something of someone new. That the action is the transformation of something that already exists can be seen from each of the contexts. Some of the passages in the first category might seem to belong here, but these passages have more to do with renewal than creation of an entirely new thing (such as a man out of the dust of the ground).

          For example, the prophets in particular used bara’ to describe the future transformations, restorations or renovations. Isaiah records, “I create new heavens and a new earth” (Isa. 65:17). In the same context of anticipated new beginnings he adds, “But be glad and rejoice over that which I create, for I am about to create Jerusalem as a rejoicing, and her people as a joy” (Isa. 65:18). According to the prophet, nature also will be renovated (Isa. 41:18-20). In fact, the entire coming restoration is called a creation of the LORD’s (Isa. 45:8).

          Bara’ can also be used for spiritual renewal. Psalm 51:10 [12] says, “Create (b^era’) in me a clean heart, O God, and renew (khaddesh) within me a steadfast spirit.” The request is for the renewal (as the parallelism underscores) of the spiritual attitudes, probably by meditation on the word, much prayer, and guidance by the priests or prophets. A similar use is found in Isaiah 57:19, which says, “I create the fruit of the lips.” The point is that when the LORD heals someone he inspires praise once again.”

          The emphasis of such creation or transformation may be on its being totally renewed. Jeremiah 31:22 explicitly adds this: “For the LORD had created (bara’) a new thing (khadashah) on the earth--a woman shall encompass a man.” But in Numbers 16:30 the “new thing” is expressed by the derivative of the verb: “But if the LORD make a new thing (w^e’im b^eri’ah yibra’) and the earth open her mouth . . . .”

          In all these samples the action of the verb bara’ is that of transforming something into a new condition. With the exception of the Numbers passage, that change is always for something far better than the old.

Synonyms

          The major synonyms for bara’ are yatsar and ‘asah. The first one, yatsar, means “to form or fashion” something purposefully, or by design. It is the activity of the artist, as may be illustrated by the participle from the verb, yotser, “a potter.” Whereas the emphasis of bara’ is on something new and perfect that is produced, the emphasis of yatsar is that what is made is formed by design. ‘Asah, on the other hand, simply means “to do, make,” and is too broad to be helpful in this study.

          There is another word that is used a couple of times as well--qanah, “to create.” It is often lost in the meaning of qanah, “to acquire,” but is actually an individual word (another homonym). And, the verb banah, “to build,” also may be synonymous with words of creation, but has a broader range of uses. It may be used for the physical construction of something (such as a house), but may also be used for creation (the forming of Eve) or procreation (e.g., building the house of Israel).

Translations

          In the ancient Greek translations of the Bible several words were used to translate bara’, the most common being ktizein (which also translates other words for creation). In classical use the word meant “to people a place” or “to make habitable.” But in the New Testament it is used for the creation by God (Col. 1:16; Eph. 3:9) as well as the transforming of people who come to faith (Eph. 2:10; 4:24).

          The second major word used in the Greek is the general word poiein. Hatch and Redpath list over a hundred forms translated by it. Poiein most often translates Hebrew ‘asah, “to make, do,” but it translates bara’ in Genesis 1:1, 21, 27; 5:1, 2; 6:7; Isa. 42:5; 43:1; 45:7, 18; and 65:18. Aquila, however, preferred the precision of ktizein in the creation accounts.

          Several other Greek words are used. In Numbers 16:30 we find deiknuein, “to show, bring to light.” Archein is used in Genesis 2:3--“which God began to do.” Isaiah 40:28 and 43:7 have kataskeuazein, “to equip, furnish, prepare, build and furnish a house.” In Isaiah 40:26, 41:20, and 42:15, katadeiknunai, “to introduce, invent, make known,” is used.

          So the Greek translators did not confine themselves to the main words “create” or “make,” especially when working with the different nuances of bara’ in the prophets.

          According to the American Heritage Dictionary the English word “create” means (1) to cause to exist, bring into being, originate; (2) to give rise to, bring about, produce. It derives from the Latin creare, “to bring forth, create, produce” (“to cause to grow.” Ceres was the goddess of agriculture, especially the growth of fruits [see also “cereal”]). See also “procreate.”

Significance

          The word bara’ is used exclusively for the activity of God in which he fashions something new and pristine. The word could be used for creating something out of nothing, but that emphasis must come from the context and not from the meaning of this word (and the Bible does in many places teach that creation was originally out of nothing).

          Bara’ Includes the ideas of creating, shaping, forming, and transforming. Its emphasis lies in the fact that what is produced is new and fresh and good and perfect. It does not produce something imperfect or incomplete. While many English words could be used in the translations, “create” still serves very well because its connotations have been elevated by association with the Creator. We tend to use the word “create” to refer to a work of art, a masterpiece, something new and wonderful. For all the ordinary things, or inferior things, “make” serves very well. 

Allen P. Ross

Ga’al ("Redeem, Protect")

Ga’al

"Redeem, Protect"

Of the Hebrew terms translated in English with "redeem," ga’al is the one word that is most closely connected to Israelite customs. The frequent use of the verb and its main noun in the Book of Ruth illustrates this point. The study of ga’al will show that at the heart of this redemption are the concepts of protection and deliverance.

Etymology

Dictionary Definitions

The customs of Israel with regard to the family are first brought out in some of the dictionary definitions. BDB define the word as "to redeem, act as kinsman."¹ KBL have "to lay claim to a person, a thing," and then the developed meaning of "to claim back from another’s authority, to redeem." The old dictionary by Gesenius (upon which BDB was based) says it a little differently: "to redeem, buy back, to require blood; to perform the right and office of a relation via the Law."

One would conclude from this initial survey that the word meant "to redeem" in the sense of reclaiming in relation to tribal protection.

Hebrew Cognates

There are not many words related to the verb ga’al. There is an abstract noun g^e’ulim, "redemption," in Isaiah 63:4. A feminine noun g^e’ullah also means "redemption," or the "right of buying back," or even "kin." The more specific meaning of these words will be made clear through the study of the verb.

Likewise, personal names do not provide insight into the ramifications of the verb. The name yig’al probably means "he redeems," or "may he redeem." But we will know what the name means specifically by studying the verb carefully. In other words, names do not help us define the word--the word used helps us define the names.

Other occurrences of the root are apparently borrowings from Biblical Hebrew. The participle occurs in Qumran with the sense of "(next of) kin." The word also occurs in Samaritan and in Judaeo-Aramaic.

Rabbinical literature (NH, Gospel times roughly) uses the biblical words with the same meanings in general. According to Jastrow’s dictionary, ga’al means "to cover, ransom, redeem, protect." It is used in the Mishnah to refer to the redemption of the ancestors from Egypt (Pes. 10:6), and in the Talmud for the act of borrowing money to redeem property (Kidd. 20b). Legislation on the Jubilee year also necessarily employs the term with the biblical senses (Kidd. 15b, Ib.20b; Sabb. 118b). So also the Midrashic Literature on the relevant biblical texts will employ the term. "Redemption, release, vindication, protection," are the ideas that keep surfacing in the usages.

Cognate Languages

            There are no helpful cognates attested for this word. Ringgren says that there is only one, an Amorite proper name Ga’alalum (see in TDOT). This only shows that the word was known in the earlier periods, and reveals nothing of the meaning. Stamm mentions a proper name with the letters G’ljhw from Beth-Zur as well (see in THAT). The old lexicon by Gesenius lists an Arabic "avenger of blood"--but the word is not a cognate. He was merely showing that the custom was similar.

Because of the limited use of the term in other languages, the meanings will have to be established from biblical usage.

Usage

           All the uses of this word-group may be divided between human activity and divine activity (which seems to be a figurative use of the former). At least it is convenient to understand how it is used on the human level before considering the divine activity intended by it.

The Human Go’el

The underlying meaning of all the uses for humans is that the term applies to a relative, some family relation, who will act to redeem, protect, or restore, the property, liberty, life, or posterity of a family member.

1. Protecting Property. The nearest male relative of a weak or oppressed Israelite was responsible to protect the property of the family. This relative came to be known as the "kinsman redeemer" (go’el) because of his actions. According to the Law (Lev. 25:25-34) he was to buy back land sold by a relative. This was to ensure that the family retained the full benefit of the property even during the 49 years that the property could possibly be in the hands of someone other than it owner. This means, of course, that the kinsman redeemer had to be fairly wealthy; poor relatives are of little help.

The kinsman redeemer was also to be paid the extra restitution which was applicable to the violation of property rights (see Lev. 5:21-26; Num. 5:8).

In the Book of Ruth Boaz was determined to settle the matter with regard to Ruth. However, he started the legal proceedings with the discussion of the field of Elimelech that was up for sale, i.e., to be redeemed. The verbs "sell" and "acquire" are used in the discussion, but in the final analysis the nearer kinsman uses the verb ga’al for the whole process: "I am not able to redeem it lest I mar my inheritance. You redeem it for yourself" (4:6). It is likely that once Ruth was part of the deal, he backed out, not wanting to marry a Moabite.

In addition to redeeming family property, the go’el could redeem for his own use things that he had vowed. For example, if a man vowed to give his animal to the LORD, he could then buy it back so that he would retain the use of it--but the LORD would receive the value of the animal vowed. The vow could be paid in the value of the property plus the surcharge of a fifth again (Lev. 27:13). For this reason people would be hesitant to do this--and indeed, the law was on the books to discourage rash vows. But still, in such cases the man was acting as the go’el on his own behalf.

2. Securing Liberty for a Relative. The kinsman redeemer could liberate a family member (Lev. 25:47-54). If an oppressed Israelite could not find relief with the help of an Israelite brother (Lev. 25:35) or hire himself out to a fellow Israelite (Lev. 25:39), and so had to sell himself to a wealthy alien residing in Israel until he worked off the debt, a go’el (who was able and willing) could secure his release by paying the equivalent of the wages of a hireling until the next Year of Jubilee. Thus, he could set the oppressed at liberty by in effect hiring a replacement. How often this happened we do not know; it would have to be a magnanimous and wealthy relative who would do this for a man who got himself into such predicaments.

3. Avenging the Death of a Relative. The "kinsman redeemer of blood" (go’el haddam as he is called) could assume the legal responsibility of a blood avenger to make things right. If someone in the family was killed (Num. 35:24)) and the culprit defied the law and ran free, the kinsman redeemer could put the killer to death when he caught up with him at large (Num. 35:19, 21; Deut. 19:5, 6; and 2 Sam. 14:7). He could not do this if the man fled to a city of refuge. But the action of the go’el was legal whether the killing had been pre-meditated or accidental. Thus, the kinsman redeemer would vindicate the family name by avenging the death. Moreover, the fear of such avenging would serve to protect life, because a reckless person would think twice before killing someone--if he was tried and witnesses condemned him, he would die; if he tried to go free, he could be killed; if he fled to the city of refuge, he lost his liberty and had to remain incarcerated there.

4. Providing an Heir for the Deceased. If a man died without having children, that is, a male heir to carry on the family name and retain the family lands, it was the duty of the go’el to marry the deceased man’s widow and provide an heir who would continue the name and inherit the property (Deut. 25:5-10; Ruth 4:5, 10).

The straightforward interpretation of Ruth shows that g^e’ullah, "redemption," incorporated the institution of the "Levirate Marriage" as well as the acquisition of the property. The point of this part of the activity of the kinsman redeemer was to preserve "social immortality," that the name not die out, but be continued from generation to generation.

The responsibilities of the kinsman redeemer were apparently voluntary and not obligatory. The emphasis in Ruth on the willingness to redeem, as well as the possibility of refusal, shows that the kinsman could back down from such duties--but to do so would be to refuse to do "loyal love" within the family, and therefore incur disgrace. In Jewish literature there is a whole tractate explaining the ins and outs of "Refusal." As a bit of poetic justice, in Ruth the near kinsman’s name was expunged from the text and replaced with a catch phrase meaning something like "John Doe" (p^eloni ‘almoni, "so and so")--he would not act to retain the name of the deceased relative, so why should his name be kept?

These laws were based on ancient customs (see Gen. 38) and served to preserve and protect the family so that the welfare of the whole nation would continue. In fact, the ideal king in Israel was to be a kinsman redeemer for the poor and needy of the land, representing the spirit of these laws in his righteous administration:

"He shall deliver the needy when he cries,

        the poor also, and him who has no helper;

He shall spare the poor and the needy,

        and shall save the lives of the needy;

He shall redeem (yig’al) them from deceit and violence,

        and precious shall their blood be in his sight" (Ps. 72:12-14).

The Divine Go’el

Analogous to many of the activities of the human kinsman redeemer are the divine. Since the Scriptures use the term frequently to describe the LORD’s acts of redemption, a careful analysis of the categories of meaning is essential to determine its contribution to the biblical teachings on that divine work.

1. Deliverance from Bondage. A large number of passages applying the word ga’al to the LORD refer to deliverance from bondage, captivity, or exile. The first instance refers to the exodus: "I am the LORD and I will bring you out from the yoke of the Egyptians. I will free you from being slaves to them and will redeem you (w^ega’alti) with an outstretched arm and with mighty acts of judgment" (Exod. 6:6). The record of the deliverance from bondage in Egypt shows this to be a figurative use of a well-known concept, the concept of liberating kinsmen from bondage. In other words, the Israelites were already related to the LORD by faith, so the "redemption" referred to here is God’s deliverance of his people. Later biblical writers also described this great event as a "redemption" in terms of g^e’ullah. For example, Psalm 74:2 says that the nation was redeemed to be the tribe of God’s own inheritance; Psalm 106:10 says that the nation was redeemed from its enemies; and Isaiah 51:10 states that redeemed Israel crossed the Sea.

The term is also used for deliverance from the Babylonian captivity. Isaiah 48:20 says that Israel’s going forth from Babylon is evidence that the LORD redeems them. These were the people of God being set free. Now it is possible, indeed likely, that some people came to faith in the LORD at that time for the first time, and so the "redemption" for them was more than a deliverance from exile. But for the most part these were people who already believed, even though their faith may have been weak at times. Micah 4:10 also promises that the LORD would redeem Israel from Babylon.

And God will also redeem Israel from its present dispersion around the world. The dispersion began when Assyria and then Rome destroyed the two kingdoms of Israel and Judah--many of those people never returned. But others did, only to be dispersed again when Rome utterly destroyed the nation in 135 A.D. (The temple was destroyed in 70 A.D., but the final blow came with Hadrian). But the prophets foretold how Israel was to be re-gathered to its land, first in unbelief, and then to come to saving faith (Ezek. 37). Then, in the days of Jesus, the people were still waiting for that consolation of Israel; and Jesus and Paul both spoke of it as still in the future. It would be part of the great redemption for which the whole world groans. And ga’al is the term that fits that great deliverance and restoration better than any other word. So Isaiah announces that at that time all the ends of the earth will see the great deliverance (Isa. 52:9); he writes: "Burst into songs of joy together, you ruins of Jerusalem, for the LORD has comforted his people; he has redeemed (ga’al) Jerusalem." As would be expected, the fulfillment of this oracle has been debated from the beginning. It is no doubt that the restoration from the captivity was seen as a partial fulfillment, but since there did not follow universal peace and righteousness, an abundance of life in the land, and the reign of the Messiah, they new it was but a foreshadow of things to come. As Paul said, quoting from Isaiah, the ultimate fulfillment of the world-wide redemption of the people would come just prior to or at the time of the second coming when the fulness of the Gentiles had come in (Rom. 11:26). But regardless of the exact time of the fulfillment, the point is that the word ga’al is used for the LORD’s delivering his people from bondage to the world.

2. Redemption through Vengeance. God is the avenger of blood inrelation to his people Israel, according to Isaiah. So this, another aspect of the meaning of the word, is the means of God’s redeeming Israel from bondage. Isaiah 47:4 states that because the LORD is Israel’s redeemer, Babylon will be destroyed. Later, the prophet states that God is Israel’s redeemer and so will contend for his people (Isa. 49:25, 26). In Isaiah 63:4 the "year of my redemption" (g^e’ulim) is in parallelism with "the day of vengeance." Jeremiah also explains that because Israel’s redeemer is strong, Babylon will be destroyed (Jer. 50:34).

3. Deliverance from Distress or Death. Closely related to the concept of deliverance from exile is the use of the term to express deliverance from suffering and disaster that leads to death. For example, the patriarch Jacob attributed to God his redemption from evil (Gen. 48:16). "All evil" has a much broader range than exile, and only a close study of the patriarch’s life experiences will show the full meaning. Elsewhere, the psalmist mentions redemption from destruction (Ps. 103:4). And Lamentations reports the words of a believer about to go into exile, but who is thankful that he is alive (Lam. 3:58). But perhaps the best example is found in the prophet Hosea who records the word of the LORD: "I will ransom them from the power of the grave; I will redeem them (’eg’alem) from death. Where, O death, are your plagues? Where, O grave, is your destruction?" (13:14).

Some attention must be given to the very important use in Job 19:25, which says, "I know that my redeemer (go’ali) lives." Job knows that he is about to die; but he also knows that he has an go’el, an avenger, who will make things right after all. The difficulty is that throughout the book he expresses his conviction that God is treating him like an enemy, and God is the one putting him to death. But here he seems clear that there is a redeemer, an avenger, ready to champion his cause. Who else could that be but the God? This he does not understand, but he will not waver in his faith in his redeemer. The usage of ga’al here combines the meanings of vengeance and rescue from great distress. Although he knows he will die, through the g^e’ullah of his great go’el he will see God.

4. Redemption from Sins. The prophet Isaiah reports the word of the LORD for Israel: "I have swept away your offenses like a cloud, your sins like the morning mist. Return to me, for I have redeemed you (g^e’altika)" (Isa. 44:22). From this it appears that the redemption of the LORD is at least accompanied by the blotting out of sins. Passages that in general discuss reclamation from bondage or distress will confirm the idea that removal of sin is part of the operation. There would be no deliverance from bondage if the sin was not dealt with; and so in the New Testament it is no surprise to see Jesus connecting the forgiveness of sins with the healing of people.

So God himself is a go’el, a Kinsman Redeemer as it were. The term basically describes the work of God in delivering his people from bondage, distress, imminent death, and/or sins. Because Israel was not strong enough to redeem herself, God had to do it (Jer. 31:11). Because Israel did not sell herself into that condition for money, God will not redeem with money (Isa. 52:3). His redemption is based on love and pity (Isa. 63:9) for his people, and accomplished through judgment on the oppressors.

Synonyms and Antonyms

There are a number of words that overlap with aspects of ga’al, but only a couple are close enough to be called synonyms. The general word for "redeem" is padah, but it is not as technical as ga’al. It basically means "to purchase, redeem with a price." One might "purchase" (padah) a slave, as the Scriptures teach that God did with Israel (in one way of looking at the Exodus); but one "redeems" (ga’al) kinsmen, setting them free. Another word, qanah I, "to acquire, buy," stresses the fact of the acquisition, but not the technical relations. Words for salvation or atonement are related to the word "redeem" in the general theological sense, but only padah is a close synonym.

There are other terms for "relative," or "kin," or for "blood avenge," but no one word comes close to ga’al in expressing the work of a kinsman in redeeming, protecting, or avenging the life, liberty, and property of a relative.

Words that have to do with "selling" (e.g., makar) serve as antonyms to our word. These are not particularly helpful in the study, except that they are used to describe God’s sending his people into captivity--the reverse of the redemption.

Translations

The Greek Old Testament used several words (as might be expected) for the translation of ga’al. The most frequently used words were lutroo, agchisteuo, and rhuomai (used 53, 32, and 12 times respectively). The first stresses the fact of redemption, but does not have all the meanings it has in the later New Testament use. In general it appears as a translation of ga’al in the Psalms. The second word is used to express the fact of kinship, or the work of the kinsman. Thus, it is common in the Pentateuch. The third word emphasizes the aspect of "drawing out," primarily of God’s redemption of his people from the nations. So this is more frequently in Isaiah.

Many English words have been used to translate our word, and perhaps no single word will cover all its meanings. "Redeem" is fairly adequate for most usages, because it means "to recover ownership of by paying a special sum." But if it is used most frequently, its distinctive meaning would have to be made clear or people will confuse it for the New Testament idea of redemption, that is, the suffering Messiah on the cross. The English word "redeem" can also mean "to set free, rescue, ransom." At times, however, "kinsman" and "avenger" or "protector" would be better.

Conclusion

The term ga’al is a technical term drawn from the culture of ancient Israel. Its usages show that it describes the work of the kinsman on behalf of the family, liberating, protecting, or avenging a relative. When transferred to describe divine activity, the same concepts are in the minds of the writers. Only on occasion does the word focus on redemption from sin and distress, and even then not totally dissociated from redemption from bondage or exile.

It is clear, however, that from the Scripture the LORD God is a go’el. There is no reason, or support, for trying to argue for a typology from the character of Boaz when the prophets simply state unambiguously this aspect of God’s nature and work. But the aspects of God’s work that this word describes are more in harmony with the second advent of Christ. The context of the many predictions of God’s redemption is appropriately Jubilee and re-gathering, or, the final redemption. 

Allen P. Ross